Conflict between Kuwait and Iraq

Causes of Conflict between Iraq and Kuwait

Conflict over territories
One of the causes of the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait was the claim over the Bubiyan and Warbah Islands. These islands belonged to Kuwait, but Iraq wanted these islands as it would help Iraq gain access to the open waters of the Persian Gulf. The Iraqis had even attempted to gain these islands by force in the 1960s and 1970s. Since 1978, Iraq had tried to lease the islands instead. Kuwait’s refusal to grant this request worsened the relationship between both sides as Iraq saw Kuwait’s refusal as an attack on its national interest. This lead to the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait

The borders Iraq & Kuwait inherited from the British after independence were not well-defined. One such contention was over the profitable Rumaila oilfields in 1990. Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing its oil at the Iraq side of the oil filed by using slant-drilling technology & demanded Kuwait stopped drilling and pay Iraq US$2.4 billion in compensation. This led to the Iraq-Kuwait war as Kuwait refused to compensate, standing firm that their drilling activities were legitimate. This led to worsening of tension between both countries that increased the chances of war.


Historical Enmity
Another factor that caused the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait was the historical enmity that existed between them. Iraq had all along considered Kuwait to be part of Iraq. As such, Iraq expected Kuwait to give in to its demands. Kuwaiti’s refusal to give in to Iraq resulted in shock and anger. As a result, Iraq was even more aggressive in trying to force Kuwait to give in to their demands. The result was a worsening of the relationship between the two as Kuwait might have seen the Iraqi actions as bullying.

Overproduction of Oil by Kuwait / Economic problems / Oil Production
Overproduction of Oil by Kuwait is another cause of conflict between Iraq and Kuwait. Before the start of the Iran-Iraq war of 1980 to 1988, Iraq was a relatively prosperous country with about US$35 billion in reserves. Iraq suffered tremendously during the war with Iran. Besides the heavy loss of lives, Iraq’s economy was in ruins. Iraq owed about US$80 billion in debts to its neighbours and other countries that had supplied it with food and war equipment. The reconstruction of the war-torn country also required a massive US$230 billion. Iraq, thus, had to find ways to pay off this massive debt as well as to rebuild the country. Iraq had hoped to pay off its debt by earning more revenue from the sale of oil. However, oil prices were falling due to over-production by some countries. OPEC had put quotas on the amount of oil that its member countries could produce to prevent a further decline in oil prices. Kuwait and the UAE, however, ignored the quota set and produced oil well about their assigned limits. This caused oil prices to fall from US$18 to US$7 per barrel at one point. Iraq lost a lot of revenue due to the fall in oil prices. Iraq lost US$1 billion from oil sales each time the price of oil fell by one US dollar. Iraq felt that the action of Kuwait and the UAE was equivalent to waging an economic war on Iraq as 90% of its income came from the sale of oil. This worsened the relationship as Iraq saw Kuwait’s refusal as an attack on its interest and hence Iraq decided to launch an attack on Kuwait.


Which is most important reason for the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait?
Although there were many reasons for the worsening of relations between Iraq and Kuwait, perhaps the most significant cause of the conflict could be the over-production of oil by Kuwait which resulted in the worsening of Iraq’s economic problems. Iraq was already facing immense debts and problems with rebuilding the country after the long war with Iran. The money to pay off this debt and rebuild the country would come from the sale of oil. The over-production of oil meant that Iraq received less revenue than it needed and this increased pressure on the Iraqi government. Historical enmity is not as important because it was an issue that had existed since the time of Kuwait’s existence and did not threaten Iraq’s survival then. It could have been a contributing factor but the immediate problem facing Iraq then was economic in nature.


Role of United Nations

One of the aims of UN is to maintain world peace and security. Despite UN less successful attempts in bringing peace and security to some troubled areas in the world, the Gulf War serves as a good example of the capabilities of the UN to gather its resources to deter aggression.

The main reason for the success in the Gulf War is the involvement of the five permanent members of the Security Council (China, France, Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States).

UN peacekeeping missions could be effective in resisting aggression if the following conditions were met:

High threat to all UN members leading to general consensus among permanent members of the Security Council
US leadership and support for UN resolutions
The legitimacy of working through UN Resolution and the rule of law.

Iraq-Kuwait conflict was a crisis that destablished the Middle East and affected the price of oil. The Oil prices jumped 15% in the first few days of the Iraq Invasion. If the price of the oil continue to rise, all countries in the world would be affected negatively, which led to UN resolution 678 being passed, supporting the US-led liberation of Kuwait.

However, due to the limitations of UN resolutions, US and allied troops could not take direct military action to support the Kurdish and shi’ite rebellions against Iraq.
The UN would later only provide safe and humanitarian aid for fleeing Kurdish refugees through no-fly zones and continued to apply economic sanctions against Iraq.

The Gulf War was resolved in a relatively short period of time due to the fact that the aggressor was known. As such diplomatic attempts could be made to negotiate for a settle, and when that failed, there was a target for coalition force to attack.

Impacts of Iraq-Kuwait conflict

The Impact on Kuwait was a damaging result of the conflict. Kuwait suffered heavy losses on both its society as well as on its economy. Many Kuwaiti civilians were killed and thousands of others were tortured. Kuwaitis were also treated harshly to force them to flee their own country. The economy also suffered tremendous losses as the Iraqi army set fire to 600 out of the 950 oil wells in Kuwait. Damages to Kuwait amounted to over US $25 billion.

The Impact on Iraq was a damaging result of the conflict. The Iraqi military capability was badly destroyed as coalition forces had utilised state-of-the art weapons in their campaign against Iraqi troops. The heavy losses suffered by the Iraqis resulted in a loss of morale among the remaining troops.

Political instability in Iraq arose as Kurds tried to overthrow Saddam as they felt that his power was on the decline. However, Saddam dealt harshly with the uprisings against him. As a result, thousands of Kurds were massacred and almost one million Kurdish refugees fled Iraq.

Suffering of Iraqis was also apparent. Operation Dessert Storm resulted in the destruction of a large part of Iraqi infrastructure. Also, the Iraqi people suffered as they could not carry out their daily activities due to a disrupted supply of electricity. They also suffered from a spread of diseases as the water supply in the country was contaminated

The Regional and Environmental Impact was another damaging result of the war. The Gulf War created an environmental catastrophe and also resulted in a severe displacement of foreign workers which created great suffering for their families back home. The Iraqi forces set fire to Kuwaiti oil wells, dumped about 11 million barrels of oil into the Persian Gulf, thus greatly threatening marine life and cost millions of dollars to put out the fires and clear the oil slick. The displacement of foreign workers was so severe that nearly 2 million foreign workers from Bangladesh, India, Egypt, the Philippine and Palestine fled Iraq when war broke out. Workers supporting large families back home suffered sudden loss of income and created great suffering for their families.

II Good Governance Notes

Why is governance important?

Policy Process: Formulation and Implementation

                    • Meeting the needs of the people and nation, using the transport policy as an example to examine:

                - principles of governance

                - roles and responsibilities of the legislature, executive and judiciary

                - role of media and feedback channels in the policy process

• Case study of Singapore’s population policies to examine policy changes over time

                - population policies from the 1970s to the 21^st century

                    - challenges of and responses to ageing population and declining birth rate

Similar Problems, Different Approaches

• A comparative study of public health care policies in Singapore and United Kingdom

                - how policies work in different countries

                - impact of policies on society and nation

Factors for sustaining good governance in Singapore

• Anticipate Change and Staying Relevant

A good government also needs to be forward-looking. A forward-looking mindset anticipates future challenges and needs. This prepares the country for changing times and helps Singapore remain ahead in a competitive global economy. NeWater and desalinated water are examples of how the government prepares for the future by ensuring self-sufficiency in water supply, a resource important for the survival of Singapore. The reason being, Singapore has long depended on Malaysia for its water supply and its two water agreements with Malaysia will end in 2011 and 2061. It is thus important for Singapore to look ahead and look for alternative sources of water to reduce its dependence on Malaysia so as to ensure that the country is not left stranded and vulnerable if Malaysia decides not to renew the two contracts, thus hindering Singapore’s development, progress and survival.

Another example of how the government anticipates change and stays relevant is the implementation of the Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) System. Although the Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) had been effective in controlling traffic flow in designated areas, the government anticipated future needs and took a step further in looking for improvements to the system. The labour-intensive ALS was replaced by the ERP system. Although both serve the same purpose, the ERP which uses up-to-date technology to monitor and regulate traffic flow was more efficient and effective.  

Another example of how the government anticipates change and stays relevant is the decision to build two integrated resorts at Marina Bay and Sentosa not just to keep abreast of competition in the tourism industry in the region and to capture the growing tourist market but also to provide jobs and to make Singapore a more exciting city.

Thus being forward-looking has helped the government to secure long-term commitment that will ensure that Singapore’s development can continue unhindered and help Singapore to stay competitive in the global economy.

• Leadership is Key

Good leadership in the government is also a key principle of good governance in Singapore. There is a need for honest and capable leaders to maintain stability in the government and to make the right decisions for the country. These leaders also had to be talented, with a good foresight and vision for Singapore, understand Singaporean’s needs and aspirations, and can work together as a team. They must also have the moral courage and integrity to do what is right and not what is popular with the people.

An example was in 1985, as a result of its open economy, Singapore experienced a serious recession which resulted in high unemployment. The government responded quickly to this crisis by a series of bold and unpopular measures that were aimed at quickly lowering the cost of doing business in the country. Such policies include reducing company taxes, wages and employers’ CPF contributions. These measures were bold because they reduced the government’s revenue and the employees’ income. Workers were unhappy but with the help of NTUC, they realized that the measures were needed to strengthen the economy. The policies were effective because within two years, the economy recovered.

Another example is the introduction of the Vehicle Quota system (VQS). Although the VQS was unpopular with some of the people, the government went ahead to implement it as it needed to control the growth of the car population.

The government thus needs to select its leaders very carefully, grooming them to take on leadership roles. Leaders who proved to be capable were given senior positions to test their ability through their rotation of duties in different government departments.

Good leadership ensures that Singapore continues with its path to economic success. This is because good leaders make wise and correct decisions based on sound principles. The latter will help to win the trust and support of the people for its policies and plans. It will also win the confidence of foreign governments & investors.  In turn, this will bring in increased foreign investments, success and growth to the economy.

• Reward for Work and Work for Reward

Meritocracy is a key part of the principle “Reward for Work and Work for Reward”. It refers to a system that rewards hard work and talent. Meritocracy helps to give everybody in society an equal opportunity to achieve their best and be rewarded for their performance, regardless of race, religion and socio-economic background. Rewarding hard work and talent would encourage more people to do well and so provide Singapore with a pool of committed and hardworking people who can continue to contribute positively towards the country’s progress and leadership, thus ensuring continued harmony and good governance. Edusave Scholarship, Merit Bursary and ability driven education encourages students to excel in their studies. and other areas of expertise such as the arts, music or sports. This would provide us with the best people to lead in different sectors of the country.

Meritocracy ensures that the best and talented people are available for the government. This would ensure and sustain good governance as we will have capable leaders who can bring the country forward. This is important as it ensures that talented and capable people in Singapore are able to develop further. This will lead to having more capable and talented people taking up leadership positions and, as a result, wise decisions and policies will be made, helping Singapore become a more efficient country that will enjoy economic progress and growth.

Possible conclusion:

There is no doubt that ‘reward for work and work for reward’ gives rise to good governance but it just encourage people to do well and provide Singapore with a pool of committed and hardworking people who can continue to contribute positively towards the country’s progress.

However, without good leadership in the government, there will be no one for the masses to look to for directions. Good leaders are not only capable, honest and able to anticipate future challenges and needs, but they also have the moral courage to do what is right and not what is popular. Without such good leaders, the policies which are pragmatic, encourage meritocracy and forward-looking may not even be there. Only good leaders can ensure that such policies are in place to prepare the country for changing times and helps Singapore remain ahead in a competitive global economy. Good leaders will ensure that the government practices meritocracy and reward hard work and talent so that it can sustain good governance. It will also ensure that there is fairness as Singapore is a multi-racial society with different races and religions. It also knows that it needs to win the trust of the people and will plan to ensure there is transparency in government. Therefore, good leadership in the government is the key principle of good governance in Singapore because it enables Singaporeans to have trust in their leaders, confident that they understand their needs and keep their promises to deliver results.

Measures to keep traffic smooth in Singapore

• Vehicle Quota System (VQS)

The Vehicle Quota System is a system which controls the number of new motor vehicles allowed for registration by the number of quota set by the LTA which is dependent on how many older vehicles were expected to be taken off the road. The COEs for new cars would be like a replacement of an older vehicle taken off the road. Aspiring buyers of new cars must bid for the limited number of Certificate of Entitlement (COE). Successful bidders will pay the quota premium to obtain the COE. The COE must be renewed after 10 years. The system ensures that the traffic flow is better managed with fewer new cars on the road and older cars are taken off the road unless owners are willing to pay for new COEs. The growth of the car population is better controlled and

thus, managing traffic flow is better.

• Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) and Electronic Road Pricing (ERP)

The Area Licensing Scheme which was started in the 1970s is a scheme whereby motorists had to pay for the use of certain roads in Singapore for example, the Central Business District (CBD). Gantries were set up at the boundaries of the city areas to monitor motorists who drove into ‘Restricted Zones”. It has been replaced by a more efficient technology known as the ERP. The scheme is effective because the volume of traffic flow going into the CBD after the implementation in June1975 was reduced from 32 500 vehicles to 7 700. The Electronic Road Pricing system is implemented to control the traffic flow of designated areas using the ‘pay-per-use” principle. As the payments for the scheme became electronic and drivers could not escape detection if they did not have their cash cards inserted for payment. The ERP system discourages road uses from adding to the congestion of the designated areas when there are alternative routes available, thus reducing the volume of traffic in the areas where ERP is implemented.

• Park and Ride Scheme

The Park and Ride Scheme was introduced in the 1970s also. It is a scheme whereby motorists could park their vehicles at specific car parks which were outside the city area. The motorists who parked here could then use the public transport to enter the city areas. The scheme was not as effective as many motorists were not keen about leaving their cars at designated car parks only to

have to continue their journey using a public transport. For eg, of the 7700 additional parking lots created at 9sites just outside the Restricted Zones only 585 lots were taken up. Thus effectively, it means that not many motorists

supported the scheme. As such the system is not effective.

The Vehicle Quota system must first be implemented before the ERP system can be implemented smoothly. The curbing of car population complements measures like the ERP to control specific road usage. Without the VQS to control the car population, the ERP might still work on its own, as users would still be discouraged to use certain roads, but the level of effectiveness would definitely be lower, since the car population might grow to a level which cannot be supported by the roads available.

Reasons for Singapore’s declining birth rate

• Late Marriages

Singapore’s declining birth rate due to the trend of Singaporeans marrying at a later age. A later marrying age will result in a declining birth rate because women who start a family at a later age tend to have fewer children than those who marry at an earlier age. Singaporeans tend to get married much later than they used to. In fact, the mean marriage age of women has been increasing over the year. Women have equal rights and they want their own careers. They know that having children too soon might mean that their progress at work will be interrupted, so they delay marriage and having children. This delayed in marriage and motherhood resulted in less babies being born. Hence the declining birth rate was due to the trend of Singaporeans marrying at a later age which resulted in the dangers of having children at a later age and the lower chances of conceiving at a later age.

• Previous population policies

Singapore’s declining birth rate could be due to the successful population policies implemented in the 1970s and early 1980s which have changed people’s attitude towards having large families. Between 1966 and 1981, three five-year plans were implemented to persuade people to have fewer children. For example, various measures were introduced to encourage smaller families. These disincentives included no paid maternity leave for women who had their third child and increased delivery charges in hospitals with each additional child. There was also no income tax relief for parents who had the third and fourth child. All these measures contributed to the slow population growth as people realised the advantages of smaller families.

• High costs of raising children

In recent years, the government has introduced the Baby Bonus Scheme in which parents are given cash incentives when they have children so as to help reduce the financial burden on parents taking care of their children. However, this has not helped to raise the birth rates significantly. Many Singaporeans still find it expensive to raise a child. The childcare cost has become too expensive for some Singaporeans due to the increased foreign maid levy, increase in school fees, childcare costs and medical costs. These parents who want to give their children the best will find it expensive to bring up a child. Hence, they chose to have only one child. Moreover, some adults today feel that having children will be a financial burden. Hence there is little incentive to have more children or even to have a child. 

• Improved educational status of women

Since 1970s, the educational status of women has improved. More women received formal education compared to the past. Education allowed women a place in the workforce and the satisfaction of a career. Women are no longer content with being confined to traditional, subservient roles. They desire to advance their careers, be leaders in society, enjoy life and see the world. The monetary incentive of the baby bonus schemes are not an attractive enough stimulant to the modern educated women. As a result, there was a trend of women marrying at a later age or not at all. Motherhood was also delayed. This delayed in marriage and motherhood resulted in the declining birth rate.

In conclusion, previous population control policies were effective in contributing the declining birth rate. The measures made people realised the advantages of having smaller families and provided ways in which people can have small families. However, the improved education status of women contributed more to the declining birth rates as it brought about a change in attitude and mindsets of young Singaporeans.

Measures taken by the Singapore government to encourage population growth

• The Graduate Mothers Scheme

Based on research, it was felt that the education level of the parents had a direct impact of their children in schools. The research showed that parents who were university graduates were more likely to have children who performed better in schools. As a result, the Prime Minister felt that female graduates should be encouraged to have more children so that there would be a higher chance of the new generation workforce being more educated. Thus, in 1984 the Graduate Mothers Scheme was started to encourage marriages among graduates and to encourage them to have more children.

• Pro-family policy

The government ‘Have 3 or More if you can afford it’ policy allowed couples can use their Medisave to pay for the delivery charges of the first 3 children. This scheme was slightly successful and led to a slight increase in population between 1986 and 1988, from 1.48 in 1986 to 1.96 in 1988. Part of this was due to 1988 being the Dragon Year which Chinese consider as an auspicious year for having babies. However, this was still below our replacement target of 2.1. So, pro-family incentives in 2004 such as income tax relief, working mother subsidy to families with up to 4 children and a 5 day working week, were introduced to attract some couples to have more babies. In 2004, Singapore recorded one of the lowest fertility rates among developing countries. So, the 3 child policy did not really help to promote a credible increase in population.

• The other pro-family measures 2004

In that year the Prime Minister introduced a package of new marriage and parenthood measures that were aimed at boosting population figures. These measures came about as a result of public feedback. The new measures included equalized medical benefits for both parents which meant that mothers too could make medical claims from their employers (and not just fathers ). Another measure was the grandparent caregiver relief by which a couple could claim $3,000 in income tax relief if a grandparent was helping them to take care of their child. A third measure is the 5-day work week for the Civil Service. This is to allow for a better work-life balance. Finally, there is the extended maternity leave which was an extension from 8 weeks to 12 weeks. Through these various measures, there is sufficient reason for married couples to have more children as the high cost of raising children and the lack of suitable childcare arrangements (concerns which the public raised) were addressed.

• Attracting foreign talent

The foreign talent policy was slightly more successful, with foreigners contributing to 1% of the 2.8% population growth in 2000. Relaxing immigration policy and providing subsidised housing and education package made it easier for foreign talents to live and work in Singapore. By making it easier for foreigners to work and live in Singapore, the government hoped that some of these individuals would develop an attachment to the nation and take up permanent citizenship or residence. This did help to increase the country’s population. In fact, the government now hopes to attract more foreigners to make up for the declining birth rate as Singapore aims to increase its population from 4 million to 6 million.

The government measures to increase population after 1980s were largely unsuccessful. After 1988, the number of babies per woman fell steadily to 1.59 in 2000. Despite public campaigns on the joys of parenthood, married couples opted to have not more than 2 children. These resulted in fewer babies being born despite the pro-family incentives given after 1980s. So, the policy was largely unsuccessful as it failed to have any lasting impact on the population growth rate until today. Birth rates continue to dip. Even the baby bonus scheme of 2001 that gives monetary incentives for giving birth to more children failed to promote population growth. So, attracting foreign talent is at present the more effective strategy for Singapore to overcome its manpower needs.

Ways in which Singapore prepare for her ageing population

• Government

The government has made laws and introduced measures to protect the interests of the senior citizens.  The first law is the Tribunal for the Maintenance of Parents where parents can obtain the help of the court to seek financial support from their children who are capable of supporting them but are not fulfilling their responsibilities.  Another law is under the Public Housing Scheme which allows first time buyers of government’s flats to obtain a housing grant if they buy a flat in the vicinity where their parents live so that they can look after their elderly parents.

• Community

The community can also play an important role in enhancing the well-being of senior citizens.  It can give social and emotional support and provide healthcare and social services.  The government provides subsidies to voluntary welfare organizations that run community-based services for senior citizens.  An example of such an organization is the Home Nursing Foundation for Elders.  Most of such organizations involved members of the community such as housewives, students and retirees to help look after the needs of senior citizens.  Some community organizations also offer free health checks and organize recreational activities for senior citizens.  These services and activities are means to help senior citizens to remain physically, mentally and socially active.

• Individual

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle is the responsibility of the individual in preparing for their old age.  He should watch his diet and exercise regularly.  He should also plan early and be financially prepared for old age.  At the same time, family support is also important to bring about social stability and harmony.  To strengthen family bonds, Grandparent’s day is also celebrated to bring families together to show their appreciation for the elderly. 

The most important factor is the role of the individual as he is ultimately liable for his own health and therefore life.  The government support is primarily aid to sustaining one’s health while the community helps doubles as reinforcements.  At the end of the day, the community and the government cannot determine nor intervene entirely where the individual’s health or wealth and therefore standard of lifestyle are concerned. 

Ways to meet the healthcare needs of the people in Singapore

• Promoting a healthy lifestyle

Promoting a healthy lifestyle ensures that people of all ages remain healthy. Schools, workplaces and community centres have programmes to emphasise the need to maintain good health. For example, regular physical exercises and a well-balanced diet are encouraged and given active support. If more people were to follow a healthy lifestyle, there would be less people seeking medical treatment. This would mean a savings, not only for the individual, but also for the government which would then not have to invest heavily in healthcare. The funds could instead be channeled to other areas which require more funding such as education.

• Encouraging Self Reliance

Encouraging self-reliance is the best way of meeting the healthcare needs of Singaporeans as this involves people sharing the costs of healthcare with the government. This is done through two schemes – the Medisave and MediShield schemes. Under Medisave, 6-8% from every workers central provident fund contributions every month is channeled into their Medisave accounts,. This money can be used to pay hospital bills and certain medical treatments, including expensive ones, when needed such as chemotherapy. Medisave can be complemented by MediShield, a national healthcare insurance scheme which makes it possible for patients to claim for large medical bills which Medisave does not cover. Making workers self-reliant through such schemes lightens the government’s burden of paying for healthcare services. This means the government does not need to raise taxes to pay for rising healthcare costs, as would happen in a welfare state.

• Means-testing

Means-testing is an effective way to keep healthcare cost affordable as it would mean subsidies that are provided by the government would benefit patients who need them most. Resources would be more fairly distributed if those who cannot afford to pay for healthcare get the most subsidies. In the same way, those who are more well-to-do would benefit less from subsidies. This would ensure that healthcare cost does not become expensive as it would ensure that limited resources are given to those who need it more, etc

• Government Subsidies

In Singapore, providing subsidies for government hospitals is one of the ways to keep healthcare costs affordable. When the government gives subsidies to hospital wards, patients need not pay the full amount for the healthcare treatment received.

This is especially so for patients who choose to stay in Class ‘C’ wards where the subsidy is 80% of the hospital bill for the patient. People who cannot afford to pay for extra facilities during their hospital stays can choose to be treated in Class ‘C’ wards. In this way, healthcare cost is kept manageable for the lower income group, etc. To ensure that healthcare remains affordable for most Singaporeans, means-testing was introduced in Jan 2009. Under the means-testing, patients whose income is $3200 and below would receive subsidies of 65% for Class B2 and 80% for Class C. Those whose income are $5201 and above would receive 50% subside for Class Bs and 65% for Class C.  Patients whose income falls between $3201 and $5200 would receive graduated subsidies between 50 and 65% for Class B2 and between 65-80% for Class C. Government subsidies helps to meet the needs of the people as it ensures that whoever cannot afford to pay for healthcare get the most subsidies.

• Support services/ Working with organisations

The community plays a supportive role in helping the government manage healthcare. It is not possible for the government to run all healthcare services. Some patients who are discharged from hospitals may still need medical care. Voluntary welfare organizations and some private organizations are given grants to run community hospitals, nursing homes and day rehabilitation centres for this group of patients. Organisations also cater to the needs of specific groups of people such as the poor or those with a particular illness like the Home Nursing Foundation, which provides quality and affordable home nursing services for the needy and elderly sick in Singapore. By playing a supportive role to the government, the community helps by providing resources and shares the costs and burden of healthcare services.

Aims of healthcare policies

• Social equality

The healthcare policies must ensure that the lower-income group is not deprived of healthcare. No person must be deprived of healthcare because he can’t afford it. Some lower income groups are not able to afford medical expenses in spite of Medisave, Medishield and government subsidies, thus Medifund was set up & the interest earned is given to public hospitals to provide help for needy patients. The government also gives direct subsidies to government’s hospitals, polyclinic and some nursing homes for elderly to ensure healthcare services are available to all. More subsidies for different classes of wards e.g. Class C gets the most subsidies. It provides good basic medical care at an affordable rate. Government has given assurance that sufficient wards would be built to cater to lower-income Singaporeans. Under means testing, the system of pegging how much person pays to his income, well-to-do will get fewer subsidies than lower income.     

This is essential as it is unhealthy for social cohesion if lower income feel their needs are not taken care of and there’s no scheme to help them level up.

• Economic consideration

It is necessary to reduce healthcare cost in view of rising health cost or the government has to increase taxes.  This can be done through for e.g.  Many Helping Hands approach – which involve the community.  Healthcare policies must also be able to sustain economic growth. Singapore aims to develop itself into a medical hub that provides world-class health care services for the region. It has ventured into new areas like the Life Sciences, which involves the study of genetics and the development of new medical treatments using gene therapy, new drugs and food products that have been genetically engineered.

Reducing healthcare cost means there will be more fund for other sectors e.g. education, defence. By diversifying into services e.g. healthcare, we sustain our economic growth better. Good healthcare services will attract patients from other countries to engage our services.

• Inculcate self-reliance: Social/Shared responsibility

With rising health costs due to use of more expensive equipment and latest technology and increased wages of medical profession, government cannot give very generous health subsidies to the public as it had no wish to raise funds through taxes. Self-reliance must be inculcated – give people good incentives to stay healthy and not use medical services he or she does not really need by making them pay part of their medical expenses through Medisave and Medishield. Medisave scheme is a compulsory savings scheme to help Singaporeans pay for their family members and their hospitalization fees, especially after retirement. It constitutes 6%-8% of a worker’s salary. Medshield scheme is a voluntary insurance scheme to help pay medical fees incurred by serious or prolonged illnesses such as cancer and kidney failure.

Health education is also necessary to help people make informed choices, educate them on importance of regular physical exercises and a well-balanced diet.  An example is the launch of the National Healthy Lifestyle Campaign in 1992 which includes screening programmes for early detection of diseases like hypertension, diabetes and heart diseases.

Encouraging self-reliance will reduce abuse of the healthcare system and also make more effective use of resources.

Ways in which NHS manage healthcare in Britain

• Providing quality service

Providing quality service is important. Increasing demand for free care led to long waiting queues, making it difficult for the NHS to continue to provide efficient service. The NHS Plan (2000) provided for increase in government spending till 2004. It also made use of private hospitals so that there were enough resources to provide faster and more convenient services for the patients. The NHS Improvement Plan (2004) gave patients more choices of free healthcare providers and access to their own personal HealthSpace on the internet to see their care records. So, patients now could decide on the care they needed and did not need to crowd to limited NHS providers as before. They therefore could get treated faster at their own convenient location. The NHS Direct also provided telephone medical advice so that they can save a visit to the doctor. This would reduce the burden on the NHS to provide more resources such as doctors for many patients.

• Increasing efficiency

There is an increasing demand for healthcare, especially with an increasing ageing population and less taxpayers. Yet, the people expected more and better treatments. Although the NHS had expanded, it did not have enough resources such as doctors, nurses and facilities to meet the demands of the people. To overcome this, privatization within the NHS was introduced to reduce government subsidies, save costs and make the NHS more efficient. To make profits, private companies had to be efficient. Hospitals have to improve their services as people had more choices now and hospitals had to compete to stay viable. So, the system encourages hospitals to increase efficiency to attract business and save cost. The government would thus be able to move away from welfare towards self reliance of the companies. Sub-contracting non-medical services to private contractors to provide services such as laundry, cleaning and catering would allow hospitals to concentrate on providing medical services. In this way, they can look at providing more efficient services. Streamlining free medical services encouraged citizens to take responsibility for their own welfare and health. Certain services such as medicines, dental and optical services were no longer free except for a few groups of people. Now, more people will be motivated to work as they no longer can depend on free benefits. The government thus could use the money saved to improve the NHS and the welfare state.

• Managing government spending

As demand for free healthcare increase, the government has to collect more taxes. This would make the country less attractive to business which would make it more difficult for the government to get more revenue to improve the country. The government therefore wanted to reduce government spending on the NHS but at the same time continue to provide free and quality healthcare. The government therefore increased the citizens’ National Insurance contributions in 2003. In this way, it can ensure that it had the funds to sustain the NHS.

Managing government spending was the most important aspect of managing the NHS as this will ensure that the government has the funds to provide resources so that it can provide quality service and increase efficiency. If not for government spending, then the other two aspects could not be carried out as the government would not have the funds too do so.

http://libguides.nl.sg/SingaporeNation
http://libguides.nl.sg/SingaporeGovernance
http://libguides.nl.sg/conflictandharmony
http://libguides.nl.sg/managingIR
http://libguides.nl.sg/globalization

Useful pointers for answering Source-based Questions

Inference:
The cartoonist/photographer is trying to convey the message that ……………….. as evident from Source A showing that ……………………….

Words you can use for Tones:
Positive: personal, friendly, positive, celebratory, happy, warm, encouraging, neutral, etc, official/formal, threatening, hostile

Negative: Tense, negative, embittered, sad, cold, unfeeling, angry, harsh, biased, vindictive, authoritative, arrogant, disapproving etc

Words you can use for Purpose:

Encourage, influence, persuade, convince, appeal or instigate its readers to do something e.g to agree with his views or take up certain action

To promote something/to seek support for something
Evoke emotional response, e.g. to arouse anger, to gain sympathy, to ridicule.


Reliability:
Source C states/shows that ‘……(inference)……………..’ This is supported by”…evidence)…”..

But this is not supported by Source B which says that …. (inference)…… . This is evident in “ ………(evident)…” So Source A is not reliable.

This is confirmed by …………….. shown in Source B. This is evident in “….”

As mentioned in Source C “…………………………”. This is again reflected in Source B “ ………………” which tells us that ……………

However, Source B is limited in supporting the claim that “ ………….” as …………

The Source implies that …………... However, this is very subjective as can be seen from the background information. Though ………………….., there are other possibilities.

NOTE:
1. DO not say that the whole thing is not reliable.
2. Cross reference with another source or what I have learned/studied. I know that the …….. as the … (evidence)…. so source A is not reliable.
Identify the statement that you want to validate (prove its reliability)

Comparison
Both differ in …...(topic e.g. why, how, impact)……..
Source A says that …….., which can be seen in the words “……”
However Source B says ……… This is supported by “…………”

NOTE:1. Do not simply write Source A says…. And Source B says …….,( you are not comparing if you write them separately)

2. When you compare, there must be a topic – e.g. when you compare 2 pens – you can compare the ink, one is red and other blue or you can compare the origin, one is made in Singapore and the other in Taiwan. You are not comparing them if you merely say that one is a blue ink pen from Singapore and the other is a red ink pen from Taiwan.

3. If the question ask for how different – give 2 differences and a similarities, if the question ask for how similar – give 2 similarities and a difference.

Usefulness:
The sources on the whole are useful in helping us understand ……….. However it is limited in showing us…….
The source only provides …..’s view of the cause of ………………. This we can see from the cartoon/photograph which shows ……………..

It, however, fails to show that the ………………….. which is shown in the background information, “…………………………………………………”

Though the source is biased, it is still useful for us. It tells us how the …………… view ………………...

Source E is an opinion expressed and it could be biased as can be seen when the writer commented ‘ ………………..’
Source D is also an opinion expressed and could be biased and a form of propaganda to convince the people to support the policies implemented.
As Source D and E are personal viewpoints of representative from the government and that of a member of the opposition party respectively, they may be biases in the interest of their own parties.
Source E helps us to see the view of people who might be affected by the …………………. However, as the view is from that of ………………..it might be biased. This can be cross-reference with Source D which is the view of …..………who reassure the public the necessity of government’s ………………………policy.

List of political symbols and meanings

1. Anchor – hope
2. chain- lack of freedom
3. dollar sign – capitalism or wealth
4. dove – peace
5. eagle – freedom
6. game of chess – power struggle
7. hour glass – time
8. lady blindfolded and holds a sword and weighing scales in her hands – justice
9. octopus – greed
10. lamb – obedience
11. ostrich – deliberately deaf to bad news
12. owl – wisdom
13. parrot – one who echoes others
14. puppet – person is strongly influenced by someone else or something
15. rainbow – hope
16. rose – love
17. bear - Russia
18. sausage – bait
19. skeleton – death
20. snake – evil
21. spiked helmet – German
22. star of David – Jewish or Israel
23. throne – power
24. tombstone – death or something which is past
25. turtle – slowness
26. Uncle Sam – USA
27. Yen symbol - Japan
28. Hand appearing from cloud – power of God
29. Hammer & Sickle – Soviet Union or Communism

III CONFLICT AND HARMONY IN MULTI-ETHNIC SOCIETIES

THEME III : CONFLICT AND HARMONY IN MULTI-ETHNIC SOCIETIES

Why is harmony in a multi-ethnic society important to the development and viability of a nation?  

Causes of Conflict in Sri Lanka

 The ‘Sinhala Only’

When the British ruled Ceylon, they allowed the minority but English-educated Tamils to dominate the civil service and occupy some of the most powerful posts in government. The Sinhalese, being less able to use English, were at a disadvantage. However, once Sri Lanka achieved independence, the new government (Sinhalese-dominated) passed the ‘Official Language Act’ (1956) by which Sinhala was made the country’s official language and the only language to be used as the language of administration in the country. The Tamils in the government service were given three years to learn Sinhala or be dismissed. As a result, this caused the Tamils to be upset as they found it difficult to find jobs or be promoted due to their lack of ability in Sinhala. A peaceful demonstration against the Official Language Act led to riots and many people were killed. This caused tensions to rise between the two sides. Even when the Tamils succeeded in winning some concessions on the language issue in 1957, tension between the two sides continued to increase, leading to more fighting and deaths.

Citizenship rights

In 1948, when Sri Lanka became independent, it passed the Ceylon Citizenship Act (1948) which granted citizenship to only those who were either born in the country or whose forefathers were born there. As a result, many Indian Tamils found themselves stateless. Though they had lived in the country for many years, the Indian Tamils now did not have the basic rights such as education, jobs, housing and voting which only citizens could enjoy. This was especially difficult for them to accept especially as they continued to work on the tea plantations and contributed significantly to the Sri Lankan economy. Despite India’s efforts to make an agreement with the Sri Lankan government to resolve the citizenship issue, nothing came out of it. Thus, the seeds of conflict were sown because of the citizenship laws which discriminated against the Indian Tamils.

The issue of citizenship rights concern identity and basic rights of voting in a country.  Without this basic affirmation of their belonging to the country, the other factors like university admission or the language policy will never be addressed. 

Unfair university admission criteria

Prior to 1970, university admission was based on merit and the exams were in English. This allowed the Tamils, who were English-educated, to do well in the exams and secure an equal number of places, to the Sinhalese, in the more respected medical and engineering courses. This upset the Sinhalese as the proportion of Tamils admitted to university was much higher than their proportion in the total and population. This led to a change in admission criteria after 1970: Tamil students had to score higher marks than the Sinhalese to enter the same courses. A fixed number of places in the university was also reserved for the Sinhalese. As a result, this angered the Tamils as they felt that they were being unfairly discriminated against and the policy ruined their chances of getting good, well-paying jobs. Thus it led to tension growing between the Tamils and Sinhalese.

Resettlement of peasant Sinhalese in Tamil-dominated areas

This policy was introduced in the 1950s. Sinhalese peasants were transferred from the densely-populated southwestern and central areas to Tamil areas. The government had implemented this policy to provide land for the landless Sinhalese peasants to live on and to cultivate padi. However, the Tamils were not happy as along with the poor Sinhalese peasants, came the Buddhist monks and soldiers. These newcomers occupied the lands belonging to Tamils. As a result of this tension grew between the two sides and eventually led to fighting.

Consequence of the conflict in Sri Lanka

 Economic consequences

The riots of 1983 caused massive unemployment for both Tamils and Sinhalese. People lost their jobs as factory workers, plantation workers, etc. Furthermore, foreign investors were frightened off by the violence and pulled out their investment from the country. Tourism, which was a major revenue earner for Sri Lanka, was similarly badly affected. The decrease in numbers of tourist arrivals had a serious effect on jobs related to tourism. Thus, due the outbreak (and continuance) of violence, the economy has been badly hit. The loss of jobs meant hardship for thousands of families and also pressure on the government to alleviate the suffering of the people. The loss of foreign investments meant that the country could not develop quickly and the fall in the number of tourists meant that the government had less revenues to spend on the development of amenities and facilities such as transport  and housing. All this would mean poverty and hardship for the people in general.

 Political consequence

The Tamils originally tried to get what they wanted through negotiations. But riots broke out (e.g. in 1983). As the Tamils found that their demands were not being met by the government, they began to turn to other alternative means of getting what they wanted. One was the use of violence. The LTTE began to attack the Sinhalese as well as the Tamil members of the ruling party. This armed conflict cost an increasing number of lives. Also, the conflict led to India intervening in Sri Lanka’s internal affairs. Originally it took the form of mediation by the Indians and later changed to more direct intervention (air-dropping of food and petroleum products) in Tamil-dominated areas. This was next followed, in July 1987, by Sri Lanka being pressured into signing a peace accord which allowed India to send peacekeepers into Sri Lanka to disarm the LTTE. However, the LTTE refused to surrender their weapons to the Indians. This then led to clashes between lndian   peacekeepers and LTTE. Finally, the Indian force was withdrawn from Sri Lanka. As a result the political consequence has not been just the loss of thousands of lives but also a lack of respect for Sri Lanka’s sovereignty when India intervened.

 Social consequence

This meant that the conflict caused large-scale displacement of Tamils beyond the country’s borders. Many Tamils fled the fighting and went to Tamil Nadu in South India. Furthermore, the declaration of High Security Zones (HSZ) by the Sri Lankan armed forces to keep the LTTE away, has also led to many Tamils fleeing these areas. Thus, the conflict has caused large numbers of Tamils to flee their homes and lands resulting in these refugees living in overcrowded refugee camps or with relatives or friends.

Armed Conflict

In 1976, when the demands of the Tamils were still not met , a new political party LTTE emerged asking for a separate independent state called Tamil  Elam as they believed that only separation from Sri Lanka would ensure the rights of the Tamils. When the Sinhalese government rejected the idea, the angry and dissatisfied Tamil youths resorted to violence and started attacking Tamil members of the police force, Tamil politicians and soon were attacking the Sinhalese.

Foreign intervention

The conflict attracted the attention of its neighbour, India.  At first, India tried to play the role of a mediator in response to the July 1983 riots.  It sent its foreign minister to Sri Lanka to mediate in a dialogue between the Sinhalese and the Tamils.  The dialogue failed as the parties involved could not come to an agreement. 

However on 3 June 1987, the Indian government sent 20 Indian ships to Jafffna to provide food and petroleum products to the Sri Lanka Tamils.  When the ships were turned back by the Sri Lankan navy, the Indian Air Force dropped food and medical supplies in Jaffna the following day.  In doing so, it violated the Sri Lankan airspace. 

In July 1987, under pressure from India, Sri Lanka agreed to sign a peace accord with India.  However, in Oct 1987, when the Tamil Tigers failed to fully surrender their weapons, the Indian troops took control of them by force.  From Oct 1987 to December 1988, most of the clashes in the north and east of Sri Lanka were between the Indian peacekeeping force and the Tamil Tigers.  The peacekeeping force was later withdrawn in march 1990.

Foreign intervention was a more serious consequence as it transferred the conflict to an international stage where India had to intervene.  The fact that another country had to address Sri Lanka’s domestic issues meant that Sri Lanka’s credibility took a blow.  This posed additional future problems for the Sri Lankan government as the people no longer trust their own government and solving the armed conflict became more difficult. 

Causes of conflict in Northern Ireland

Educational System
It is certain that it is the educational system in Northern Ireland that has caused the conflict in the country. This is primarily because the education system is divided according to British system, Irish system and lastly the mixed schools. Although the mixed school exists, they are not popular. So most students either go to the British or Irish school. In these schools, they are taught history, language, sports according to the country system they are crafted based on. Hence, students in these schools grow up with loyalty pledged to one nation and with hatred/ mistrust for the other. Since children are the foundation of the nation, it becomes difficult to change the hostilities that have been established before.

Divided Loyalties

To a certain extent divided loyalties was a cause for the conflict in Northern Ireland. This is because, the Catholics in Northern Ireland consider themselves as Irish and would wish to see a union of Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. While the Protestants see themselves as British and would be happy to remain in the union with Britain. By having different loyalties to different nations or ‘states’ this led to the tension between the Catholics and the Protestants in northern Ireland. This becomes a problem because the Catholics who are Irish origin are the minority in the country and the Protestants who form the majority are of British origin which makes this a tug-of-war which has not produced any favorable results. The British government sending their military to secure the safety of the Protestants has only worsened the situation.

 Housing issues

Besides divided loyalties, one other reason is the housing issue between the Catholics and Protestants which has also led to the tension between the Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. The health care provision is handled by the city councils and is partly paid by the government. However, the councils are largely consisted of Protestants. This caused resentment amongst the Catholics especially when they were delayed in getting their houses. Often Catholic families who were often large in size had to wait many years for a house as compared to a Protestant family. Therefore, many Catholics see this as very unfair and thus this contributed to the tension and led to the conflict in Northern Ireland.

While there are many different reasons that caused the conflict in Northern Ireland, the main reason is the lack of government efficiency in dealing with the situation. The government itself practicing discriminatory practices does not assist the existing tension. The government of Northern Ireland needs to take the lead about the affairs of its own country and establish equality between the 2 groups or to its needs to, alternatively, find a common ground for matters to cool off in Northern Ireland. If the government finds itself in a position in which it is unable to handle the situation within Northern Ireland, then it should seek the assistance of international organizations or friendly nations (other than Britain, since Britain is also a nation involved in this conflict) so that a third party nation can solve this issue peacefully.

Efforts to resolve the conflicts by the Irish Republican Army

Hindrance

·         Reinforced prejudice - IRA’s aim was to use violence to drive the British Army and representatives of British Government out of Northern.Ireland. A hindrance to the Catholics cause because it reinforced the divided loyalties that already existed between the Protestants and Catholics as a result of years of bitter struggles since early times

 ·         Never-ending cycle of violence - IRA was responsible for 2000 out of the 3000 deaths that occurred during the period known as the Troubles including sometimes the killing of innocent Protestants. A hindrance because a never-ending cycle of violence began. Many Protestants who had never mixed with Catholics due to the separate education systems now adopt a prejudiced view that every Catholic is an IRA man

 ·         Turning point in conflict - British Army became very prejudiced against the Catholics to the extent that they shot at peaceful civil rights marchers during the Bloody Sunday incident. This unfortunate incident was a turning point in the conflict as from then on Catholics resorted to violence. The IRA was thus in part to blame for this because their actions had made the British Army obsessed that every young Catholic man was an IRA man as can be seen from the fact that most of those shot were young men.

 ·         Rejected peace – IRA announced ceasefire in 1994 but honoured it for only 17 months as IRA planted bomb in London. IRA splinter group rejected peace accord but responded with series of bomb attacks in Belfast.   

Help

·         Needed IRA’s help - When Civil Rights Movement failed to fight for equal rights through peaceful means and was met with hostility and violence from the Protestants and police force during the Bloody Sunday Incident, the Catholics felt they needed the help of the IRA 

·         No one else to protect Catholics – Catholics lost faith in British government following introduction of Internment Laws. When British Army sent in by government to control the situation, started raiding Catholics home and arresting suspects, Catholics feeling more desperate turned to IRA as they felt that the only ones who could help them were the IRA. Hence, IRA was more of a help than a hindrance because there was no one else protecting the Catholics.

·         Only ones to protect Catholics - IRA was also the one whom Catholics turned to when Catholic homes were sometimes petrol-bombed in the middle of the night, forcing the families to flee. Catholics’ businesses and pubs were also burnt and bombed. These incidents were often witnessed by the local police force which did not do anything to stop them and hence IRA was again seen as the only ones who could protect the Catholics     

Possible Conclusion on whether IRA is more of a hindrance or a help:

More a hindrance

·         Without IRA, Catholics peaceful march could have gained international sympathy and support. However, in some sense, peaceful march by itself would not be effective enough to pressure for change since British Government and army were not neutral

OR

More a help

·         Catholics saw IRA as saviour and protector since Protestants reacted violently to Catholics peaceful protest and since British Army was not neutral. However, the IRA violence made all future efforts to reconcile or seek peaceful solution almost impossible. Without IRA, maybe peaceful methods might attract international sympathy or mediation.

Impacts of the conflict in Northern Ireland

 Innocent people affected

Many of the Catholics and Protestants were not directly involved in the conflict. They just wanted to carry on with their life without much difficulties and problems. However, with the conflict, most of the people affected were innocent people. E.g. many people killed from 1969 to 1977 due to the violences were not directly involved in the violence.

People grew with prejudice ( Social Segregation)

The Protestants and Catholics received different education, each praising their own and condemning the deeds of the other. The violence in the country also mean that the two groups of people believed that their own people were right and the other party was responsible for the conflict in Northern Ireland. This led to growth of hatred and prejudice between the two group fo people.  With increased hostility, violence continued to rise.

Economic slowdown ( Declining Economy)
Prior to the conflict, many overseas companies invested in Northern Ireland.
Tourists came to the country as the country was attractive and peaceful.
Both foreign investment and tourism declined as people were afraid for their safety and did not want to come to Northern Ireland. This reduced the revenue for Northern Ireland, leading to economic slowdown.

Bonding Singapore

Threats faced by Singapore (possible cause of conflicts)

External threats

The peace in Singapore is undermined by external conflicts/ threats from external forces. Transnational terrorism refers to acts of violence which are global in terms of aims, organisation and impact. Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), a militant group wanting to set up an Islamic state in Asia, conducted terrorist acts in many countries. Attacks on Singapore were part of the JI’s plan after JI bombed several places such as Jakarta and Bali. Targets in Singapore included the US embassy and some government buildings such as the Ministry of Education.  In 2001, Singapore experienced the threat of transnational terrorism. 34 JI members were arrested under the Internal Security Act for their involvement in terrorist-related activities from 2001 to 2002. Another JI member was arrested in April 2005. If these terrorist acts targeted at Singapore had been successful, it would have killed and harmed many people in Singapore and greatly threatened its peace. Even when the acts are halted, these acts can still test the social bonds of the people of Singapore and divide the people. Other races who do not see things in perspective may blame the Muslims in Singapore for the terrorist acts conducted by Muslims in other parts of the world. They may start avoiding the Muslims in Singapore and cause unnecessary stress to them. They may also make the Muslims in Singapore feel unwelcome even though they have not done anything wrong. Racist remarks against them may also be made due to the terrorist acts in other countries, thus angering the Muslims. The Muslims may feel discriminated and wronged by the people/ other races around them, causing resentment. This would eventually lead to unhappiness and disunity among Singaporeans. Some Singaporeans may also be influenced by the radical ideas of the JI and be tempted to join in their  terrorist activities which could threaten the peace in Singapore. Thus, the peace in Singapore can be undermined by external conflicts/ threats from external forces.

Internal threats

• Differences in the perceptions of different racial groups

The peace in Singapore is undermined by the perceptions of different racial groups too. In July 1964, during the celebration of Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, a clash between a Chinese policeman and a group of Malay participants of the procession turned into full-blown race riots. It started with UMNO leading an anti-PAP campaign which highlighted the poverty of the Malays in Singapore. They portrayed PAP’s resettlement and redevelopment projects as anti-Malay because UMNO claimed that the projects aimed to uproot the Malays from their homes in traditional Malay areas. This was to arouse feelings of dissatisfaction among the Malays in Singapore. The Malay newspaper also highlighted that the PAP government did not care about the Malays in Singapore. UMNO also held fiery speeches which portrayed PAP as anti-Malay and that stirred anger in Malays. All that were done made the Malays angry as they felt that the PAP was unfair to them and thus they were at a disadvantage. Although the policies also affected the other races, irresponsible media reporting and deliberately propagating of anti-PAP made the Malays doubt their status in Singapore.   Because of this lack of understanding among the different racial groups, it created suspicion and unhappiness among them, which led to the outbreaks of violence among them. As a result of the 1964 race riots, 36 people were dead and 560 others were injured. This showed that the perceptions of different racial groups can undermine the peace in Singapore.

• Differences in the perceptions of different religious groups

The peace in Singapore is also undermined by the perceptions of different religious groups. This was illustrated by the Maria Hertogh riots in 1950. Maria Hertogh, a Dutch, was placed under the care of a Malay lady when her parents were imprisoned by the Japanese in the 1940s. Maria was raised as a Muslim and married a Malay teacher. When her parents demanded that Maria be returned to them, a court trial followed and custody was given to the Hertoghs. The Muslims felt that the British legal system was unfair to them. This sparked off anger towards the European and Eurasian communities which resulted in the outbreak of the riots. The court’s decision to annul Maria’s marriage to a Malay teacher and pictures of Maria in a Christian convent were published. This created unhappiness in the Muslim community as they felt that the welfare of the Muslims was not looked into. The outbreak of violence left behind destruction and loss of lives.  5 were dead and 100 were hurt in the riot. The riot showed that if religious issues are not handled carefully, hostility and distrust can occur among people, thus affecting the relationships among different religious groups. Therefore, the peace in Singapore can be undermined by the perceptions of different religious groups.

Possible conclusion on what could be the most important source of conflict in Singapore:

Singapore is a multi-ethnic society. Threats from external forces are the most important source of conflict in Singapore. Perceptions of unfairness between the different racial and religious groups can be managed through our education and mediation among the different groups. The government has already put in place Inter-racial Confidence Circles and Harmony Circles. Through ensuring minority representation in the government, we also ensure that no groups of the people are overlooked. Through studying together and various forms of promoting understanding of the other races or religion, we minimised the possibility of conflict. However, threats from external forces are beyond our control. Events and developments in other countries can influence our people. Unfair treatment of the people or religious groups in other countries can have adverse impact on Singapore and lead to Singaporeans taking up their cause like in the case of the JI incident.

Ways for Singapore to manage its ethnic diversity

 Building a national identity

Forging a national identity through the policy of multi-racialism is one measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity. The policy of multi-racialism promotes equality among the races, with no special rights granted to any particular racial or religious group. Everyone has equal opportunities to succeed, regardless of their background. Favouring a certain group of people because of their race or religion is prohibited by the Constitution. Since everyone is seen as a valued member of the Singapore society, a sense of national identity as Singaporeans is created. Fostering national identity contributes to managing ethnic diversity as every citizen regardless of their race or religion will see himself/herself as a Singaporean, not as people of different races or religions, thus fostering unity amongst the Singaporeans. Thus, forging a national identity through the policy of multi-racialism is one measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity.

Forging a national identity through common practices is one measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity. Common practices are actions that Singaporeans carry out together. Singing the national anthem, taking the pledge and attending the flag-raising ceremony are examples of the common practices carried out in school. By singing the national anthem and taking the pledge every day, students are reminded that they are citizens of Singapore, of one people and one nation, and not people of different races and religions. These common practices help to foster national identity. Inculcating loyalty and national pride towards Singapore is one way to get Singaporeans to see themselves as one people, thus forging a national identity through common practices is one measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity.

Forging a national identity through bilingualism is one measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity. Under the policy of bilingualism, students are expected to learn English and their own mother tongue. English, a common language among the different races, is used as the language linking the different ethnic groups. Some schools offer a third language to their students, for example, Chinese (Special Programme) and Malay (Special Programme). By learning a third language, this means that students are able to communicate better with peers from other ethnic groups. When different ethnic groups can communicate with one another, it will enable them to foster understanding and establish friendships, thereby reducing misunderstandings and conflict among the different ethnic groups. Also as English is a non-native language for all the ethnic groups, no one has the advantage over others. Thus no ethnic groups will feel disadvantaged or being treated unfairly. As a result of this, there will be less resentment amongst the different ethnic groups, hence forging a national identity through bilingualism is one measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity.

• Developing common space

Creating opportunities for interaction is another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity. An example is developing common space through events and programmes organised by grassroots organisations. Grassroots organizations such as People’s Association (PA) create common space through their wide range of programmes and activities developed to cater to the needs and interests of every Singaporean. One of the programmes conducted for students is a home visit or home stay opportunity with a host family from another ethnic group. By doing this, this means that participants are given the opportunity to gain a better understanding of the cultures and customs of other races. With mutual respect for other races, strong friendships can be built over time. With better understanding for other races, people of different ethnic groups will be more tolerant of each other, thus conflicts arising from ethnic diversity will be reduced, hence creating opportunities for interaction through events and programmes organised by grassroots organisations is another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity.

Creating opportunities for interaction through opportunities offered by educational institutions is another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity. Educational institutions such as schools and tertiary institutions are open to every Singaporean, regardless of their race, language or religion. Students from different races and religion study together. The daily interaction that takes place among students during lessons and school activities provides an opportunity for friendships to be cultivated and strengthened. The implementation of Co-Curricular Activities (CCAs) in schools helps promote closer bonds among youths from all races. Through the variety of activities conducted during CCAs, students of different races are given opportunities to work closely together and understand one another better. When students from different races come together to play games and work on a task, this helps to build teamwork. Through CCAs, students learn to appreciate one another’s talents and respect one another as individuals. Social bonds among students from various ethnic groups are fostered through such school-based activities. As students learn about racial mixing in schools, they will make friends with people of different races, thus understanding and appreciating people of different racial and religious groups. Hence there will be less chances of fights breaking out. Thus creating opportunities for interaction through opportunities offered by educational institutions is another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity.

Creating opportunities for interaction through common living space provided by public housing is yet another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity. The ethnic integration policy was introduced to put a limit on the proportion of races in every neighbourhood and block. This ensures that there is an even distribution of the different races in all housing estates. Living together in the same neighbourhood provides opportunities for people of different ethnic groups to interact. As people of different ethnic groups use common space such as the lifts, playgrounds and sitting area at the void decks, they have the chance to interact and form friendships. This enables people of different races to understand each other and thus less conflict would occur due to the misunderstanding of another ethnic group’s customs and culture and way of living, hence creating opportunities for interaction through common living space provided by public housing is yet another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity.

Creating opportunities through interaction through activities conducted by Inter-Racial Confidence Circles (IRCCs) and Harmony Circles (HCs) is also another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity. Activities carried out by the IRCCs such as visits to places of worship create opportunities for Singaporeans to appreciate their differences and develop strong bonds among different ethnic and religious communities. HCs also organized inter-racial and inter-religious activities such as playing traditional games at the workplace. All these activities organized by the IRCCs and HCs provide opportunities for people to come together to interact and learn about the other ethnic groups. This help to foster friendships and appreciation to reduce the possibility of fighting amongst the different ethnic groups. Thus creating opportunities through interaction through activities conducted by Inter-Racial Confidence Circles (IRCCs) and Harmony Circles (HCs) is also another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity.

Creating opportunities through interaction through shared experience during National Service is another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity too. NS requires all able-bodied men to serve in the defence of the country. NS thus provides a platform for men of all races to come together for a common goal, i.e. to defend the country. The shared experiences, for example, going through military training, help to strengthen the bond among the men. As they work towards the common goal of defending the country, they will have a sense of unity among them even though they may not be of the same ethnic group. This helps to bond people of different ethnic groups and reduce the conflicts that may happen, thus creating opportunities through interaction through shared experience during National Service is another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity too.

The opportunities to interact offered by the educational institutions is the most effective way to bond Singaporeans compared to shared experiences through National Service or having ethnic integration policy in our public housing. This is because in the educational institutions, the pupils get to learn about the other races from young. They are less prejudiced against others. At the age where their opinions are still been shaped, they are more amiable and open to accept others and when the friendships are formed, they will grow up less prejudice against others.

• Safeguarding the rights of the minority groups

Safeguarding the interests of the minority groups through minority representation is also another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity. The Presidential Council of Minority Rights (PCMR) and the Group Representation Constituency (GRC) are two examples of how representation of the minority groups is achieved. The PMCR consists of members from minority racial and religious groups. This ensures that no racial or religious group is disadvantaged as a result of a law that is passed in Parliament. Thus all laws are fair to all racial and religious groups, so that no racial and religious groups will feel resentment and that they have been unfairly treated. The GRC ensures that at least one of the candidates in the team contesting in the General Election is from the minority racial communities such as Malay, Indian or Eurasian. The GRC ensures that the minority racial groups are represented in the Parliament. In this way, the concerns and needs of the minority are made known to the government and the laws and policies passed can then be made to meet their needs even though they are the minority. The policy of minority representation gives minority groups a say in governance which is one way to safeguard the interests of the minority groups. Thus safeguarding the interests of the minority groups through minority representation is also another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity.

Safeguarding the interests of the minority groups through self-help groups is another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity too. Chinese Development Assistance Council (CDAC), Singapore Indian Development Association (SINDA), Mendaki and the Eurasian Association play an important role in helping members of their community who are less fortunate to get aid in their studies and training for their jobs. Self-help groups also give moral support to members of their own community. This helps Singaporeans to cope and compete with one another on an equal footing. By doing so, people from minority groups will be able to improve their social and economic positions in the society. This ensures that the minority groups will not be left behind and feel disadvantaged. Since 2002, the different self-help groups have embarked on joint projects such as joint tuition programme. These joint efforts allow students from different ethnic groups to attend the same tuition classes together in tuition centres run by CDAC, Mendaki and SINDA. This provides the opportunity for youths from different ethnic groups to interact and get along with one another, forming friendships and reducing the possible problems of ethnic diversity. Thus safeguarding the interests of the minority groups through self-help groups is another measure adopted by the Singapore government to manage ethnic diversity too.