IV MANAGING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Causes of International Conflicts

• Scarce Resources/Economic interest

Economic interests can be an issue between countries and result in conflicts.  This is because it affects the country’s ability to survive or prosper economically.  Tension between countries may exist because they sometimes quarrel over natural resources and economic opportunities.  Since natural resources such as water, oil and fish are scarce and unequally distributed but are essential to the survival and economic growth of a country, some countries with fewer resources may resort to the use of force to gain more or protect what they have.  An example of this would be the case study of Iceland and Britain.  During 1970s, Iceland and Britain was in conflict over fishing grounds.  Iceland has few natural resources and is dependent on the fishing industry for its survival.  So, when overfishing by other countries around Iceland led to the decrease in fish stocks in 1970s, Iceland took measures to stop this after efforts to get UN to help failed.  Iceland extended its zone of control to 200 nautical miles beyond its shore.  This meant that no country would be able to fish within this boundary without Iceland’s permission.  Britain however refused to acknowledge the new boundary and continue to fish there.  This resulted in several collisions between Icelandic coast guard and the British navy frigates and eventually led to a severance of diplomatic ties.  This case study proves countries are often willing to risk war to protect their economic interests.

• Territorial/Border

Besides economic interests, countries also get into conflicts over national interests such as control over certain tracts of land. The land may have strategic or economic value to the country or may be important to its national pride.  As such, some countries         may try to extend their control by taking over territories which do not belong to them. When 2 or more countries lay claim to the same territory, conflict may arise.  This is illustrated by the case study of India and China.  In 1947, India gained its             independence and inherited the frontier drawn by the British.  China, however, protested that it had not agreed to the frontier.  It was difficult to have a clear border between India and China because much of their frontier lies in the inaccessible     Himalayas. Two border regions became areas of conflict, the NEFA region and the  Aksai-Chin plateau. In the late 1950s, China contested India’s presence in several localities along the border and built a road on the Aksai Chin Plateau in 1958. Tension between India and China escalated when fighting broke out in the disputed region. In 1962, war broke out when China occupied even more territories which India regarded as its own. This thus shows control of land can result in conflict as the land can mean a lot to a country and each country is willing to risk a war to protect what they consider as their national interests.

• Differences in Political Ideologies

Another possible reason for conflict would be differences in ideological beliefs such as democratic beliefs and communist beliefs.  These 2 political systems are very different from each other.  In a democratic system, people are allowed to choose their own government through elections and are allowed to own their own properties, have their own private enterprises and profit from them.  However in a communist system, it is a one-party government.  No private properties are allowed and the wealth of the country should be shared by everyone and managed by the government..  Due to the very different beliefs, countries practicing these different beliefs may be suspicious of  one another.  This lack of trust may lead to hostility and the belief that the other wants to destroy their way of life. These countries come into conflict if they see their beliefs  are threatened or when one tries to impose their belief on another.  A good example would be the Korean War. In 1950, North Korea, a communist country, launched its invasion on South Korean in an attempt to bring the democratic country under its control and unite Korean Peninsula under communism.  Fearing the spread of communism, USA, its allies and UN defended South Korea.  UN forces counter-attacked and pushed the North Korean back and proceeded to invade North Korea.  China, fearing that they would be the next target, joined the war and aided in pushing the UN troops back into South Korea.  Finally, in 1953, an agreement to stop fighting was signed. Such conflicts prove that different political beliefs can cause a country to feel threatened and resort to war to protect their beliefs.

Conclusion:

As it can be seen, ideological differences are but one reason for international conflict. Reasons such as scarce resources and land and border issues form the bulk of the causes of the conflicts in the world today.  We also saw that conflicts are not easily resolved. But by coming to terms through a treaty agreement would at least provide some stability and enable prosperity of the parties concerned as in the case of Britain and Iceland.

Other possible types of conclusion on which are the most important factor/prime cause of international conflicts:

Competing claims over territory is the most important reason for international conflicts as this is the basic element underlying all the other reasons. For e.g. conflicts over differences in ideological beliefs would not arise if the parties involved are not worried about each other trying to spread its own ideology to its territory (or areas under its influence). Likewise, resources are found in certain geographical location, inevitably falling within the territory of a certain country which may think that it should exercise its territorial rights when there is competing claim of ownership by another country over such resources

Way of ensuring the national security of Singapore

• Citizen armed force

Singapore’s system of National Service ensures that there is a large number of trained soldiers available for combat during wartime. Even though the regular armed forces number only about 50 000 full-time soldiers, the pool of National Servicemen (NSmen) will allow Singapore to have a force of 350 000 soldiers in wartime. This allows the country to save the high cost of maintaining a large standing army. Also, NSmen are kept in shape and combat-ready through reservist training for 10 years after their full-time National Service stints.  In addition, the SAF today adopts the use of 3G technology which has greatly enhanced our fighting capabilities with the use of intelligence services.  This surveillance and strike systems of the Air Force, Army and Navy operate together to provide early intelligence to destroy the enemy before they can locate us. Technology has also enabled our soldiers to be equipped with modern weapons to respond promptly when necessary. This ensures that we have a well trained army equipped with the latest technology to protect and defend us against enemy attacks. It will also prevent enemies from attacking us (deterrence) as they will think twice before attacking us as they will suffer heavy damages.

• Total Defence

The policy of Total Defence has deterred aggressors from attacking Singapore. Singapore’s idea of Total Defence (TD) represents a multi-faceted approach to our national defence and ensures that we are ready from any sort of attack on our country.  As TD involves all factions of our society, it helps to ensure to strengthen national security as all Singaporeans have a role to play and potential enemies will be mindful that they are not only dealing with a highly trained armed force, but are also up against the entire population who are well prepared.  Total Defence consists many components, of which a good example is Economic Defence. When our economy is strong, it will not break down during war and workers with the relevant skills remain employable in a competitive economy. This will our nation to continue to survive even in the midst of adversity. Total Defence thus ensures that all Singaporeans are prepared to protect and defend Singapore against any form of enemy attacks. It will also prevent enemies from attacking us (deterrence) as they have to take on the entire population and hence will think twice before attacking us for fear of suffering heavy damages.

• Defence Industry

Having a local defence industry allows us to design and build military equipment that suits our unique needs. The Chartered Industries of Singapore (CIS) was established in 1967 to produce small arms ammunition and in 2000 and the Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA) was form to provide cost-effective and modern technology to the SAF.  Our defence industry upgrades or designs weapons (from guns to aircraft to tanks) to make them better and more powerful. A range of ammunition is produced for our armed forces to ensure that they will have a supply during wartime. Our defence industry is also involved in R & D (research and development) in many areas of modern warfare. Some examples are electronic warfare and remote sensing using satellites, which are sensitive areas other countries might not want to share with us. This ensures that we have an army equipped with the latest weapons to protect and defend us against enemy attacks. It will also prevent enemies from attacking us (deterrence) as they will think twice before attacking us as they will suffer heavy damages.

·         Multi-agency Coordination on Security

Multi-agency coordination on security is another way to ensure national security. Today, there are non-conventional security threats such as transnational security. For example, the National Security Coordination Secretariat was set up to coordinate the work of various government agencies towards national security strategies and policies. It also works with commercial and private parties to combat terror threats. The integrated security approach is to prevent, protect and respond to security threats by sharing knowledge and resources. This integrated security approach prevents, protects and responds to threats effectively will at least deter people from carrying their threats out and thus ensure national security.

With close networking among different ministries, we can deal with threats effectively, and others will think twice before carrying out their threats. This will further strengthen Singapore’s national security.

• Military co-operation with other countries

Singapore has military agreements with various countries to allow Singapore troops to train in their countries. Some of these countries are France, Australia, New Zealand and India.

Singapore also conducts regular military training with neighbouring countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. These activities increase cooperation and strengthen ties among the participating countries.

Singapore is also involved in multi-lateral military agreements and exercises with other countries. One example is the Five Power Defence Arrangements which was established in 1971. The five nations conduct exercises each year to enhance their cooperation and coordination. In the event of an external threat against Singapore or Malaysia, members would consult one another on the appropriate measures to be taken to deter the aggressor.

By taking part in military co-operation with other countries, it helps Singapore to hone its military skills and widen its experience. It is therefore effective in deterring its aggressors.

Possible conclusion:

I think that a citizen armed force is far more important than our defence industry. While the defence industry is important as it provides advanced weapons that will increase the firepower of our limited military force, we still require men on the ground to use these weapons. It would be useless to have the world’s most advanced equipment with only a handful of soldiers. The citizen army ensures that there will always be a sufficient number of men willing to fight and defend Singapore. As such, this is the critical factor that will make sure that the defence industry is effective in the first place. Hence, it is the most important method.

Here are three ways Singapore used to manage its diplomatic relations with other countries:

Bilateral relations

              Regional relations

             Membership of the United Nations Organization

Which of these is the best way to manage diplomatic relations? Explain your answer.

Bilateral relations

Bilateral relations involve relations between any two countries. Singapore has been actively involved in expanding its bilateral relationship with many countries since its independence. It has established bilateral ties with Malaysia, China and the USA. Such bilateral relationships have benefited Singapore in many ways – exchange of skills, technology and knowledge and the signing of mutually beneficial economic treaties. For example, in the 1970s, Singapore established bilateral trading relationships with Japan, the USA and Germany. Such partnerships allowed Singapore to acquire advanced technological skills from these developed countries. As a result, Singapore was able to speed up its economic and social development.

Regional relations

e.g. Countries establish regional relations by forming an association of countries in a region. Some examples of regional organizations are the EU and ASEAN. Singapore is one of the founding members of ASEAN. Apart from bilateral relations, regional relations are important because Singapore alone is limited in its ability to influence other countries and has less bargaining power. ASEAN represents a united and collective voice of 10 countries. This strengthens the member countries’ position when dealing with other regional groupings such as EU. Therefore, it is important for Singapore to join a regional association like ASEAN. Moreover, ASEAN has not only helped its members maintain warm and friendly relations with each other but also provided a platform for them to discuss issues pertaining to the region and an avenue for member countries to resolve differences peacefully. Besides Singapore is a small country, being part of a regional organization, she will be able to get the support that she needs from the other bigger countries in the organization.

As a region Southeast Asia has been an attractive destination for foreign investors since the 1980s although it now faces intense competition from new economic powers such as China and India because of their lower cost of productions and larger markets. Hence in 1992, ASEAN launched the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) whose long-term aim to integrate its economies into a single production base, create a regional market and remove all import taxes among member countries by 2015. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was created in 1994 to maintain peace by promoting political and security dialogue and cooperation among the countries in the Asia-Pacific region.

Membership of the United Nations Organization

e.g. Singapore was admitted as the 117^th UN member on 21 September 1965. The aims of the UN are to preserve world peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, cooperate internationally to solve international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems, promote respect for human rights and basic freedom regardless of race, religion and gender and to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining the aims listed. Today UN has a membership of 192 countries, including Singapore.

Membership in the UN provides advantages for Singapore. First, Singapore is given a voice in international issues. Even though Singapore is a small country, being a member of the UN allows Singapore to be recognized by all its member countries as an independent nation. The UN Charter ensures that its views, interests and concerns are taken into account in world affairs. Thus UN provide Singapore with a platform to voice her opinions on world issues and to obtain the help that she needs in times of crisis.

For example, in 1995, Singapore’s former representative to the UN, Professor Tommy Koh chaired the UN Law of the Sea Conference. Singapore has also served as one of the elected members of the security council. Thus UN is provides an important avenue for a small country like Singapore to gain international recognition and respect.

Membership into the UN also meant that Singapore would have international protection against its aggressors. Singapore would also benefit in the transfer of technology, ideas from advanced UN countries.

The most important type of relation is Singapore’s membership in the UN as it provides a platform for Singapore to have interaction and trade links with countries all over the world and enable the transfer of technology and ideas from advanced countries which would mean that Singapore would be a technologically advanced country on par with the other countries of the world. Moreover, as a member of the UN, aggressive countries would think twice about attacking Singapore. Though regional relations is lesser important in that it focuses on Singapore’s ties with countries of a particular region, regional relations is important as it ensures that Singapore is able to clamp down hard on security related issues such as terrorism with the support of its neighbors.

Though bilateral ties seem to be the least important as it focuses only on Singapore’s relations with a particular country, it itself has helped solve many of Singapore’s domestic issues such as the water problem. Hence, it must be said that though Singapore’s membership in the UN seem to be most beneficial, regional and bilateral ties are also important in ensuring the security and economic well being of Singapore and its management of diplomatic relations.

Diplomacy has ensured Singapore’s success in protecting the country against attacks”. How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.

Yes. Singapore practices diplomacy as a means of solving problems amicably as well as building stronger relationships with countries. The practice of diplomacy is especially crucial to small countries like Singapore which has no natural resources. Hence, it is dependent on other countries to get its supplies of raw materials. If it is not careful in its dealings with other countries, they may stop exporting their goods into Singapore. This move in turn will have an adverse effect on the country’s economy. Scarce resources will lead to a price hike and standard of living in Singapore will become too expensive for people living here. Also, with poor relations, Singapore may have difficulty attracting foreign investors into the country as investors will use the country’s political, social and economic stability as benchmarks on the success of the country. Diplomacy is done in three ways here; through bilateral relations, regional relations and international relations. Etc…

No. Deterrence strategy is also important to the country. Diplomacy alone does not guarantee that Singapore will not be attacked or will survive any attack. It still needs to ensure that militarily its country is strong and is able to overcome or deter any potential aggressors. Deterrence strategy also reflects how well-equipped Singapore is in securing its territory and its interests. Through this strategy, any potential aggressor may have to think twice about attacking Singapore, having known how Singapore has militarily prepared itself well.

Deterrence strategy is carried out in many ways. Firstly, Singapore created a citizen armed force which enabled it to be self reliant and always ready to defend itself. Lessons from the Japanese Occupation and the Indonesian Confrontation have taught Singapore the importance of establishing its own defence force. Furthermore, with its population of less than two million then in 1965, Singapore could not afford a professional army. It would also be too costly to have a huge army. Hence, in 1967, national service was introduced to make up for that shortage of manpower in the army. All 18-year-old able bodied male citizens were called up for part-time or full-time NS. Through NS, Singaporeans learn to defend their country.  The training they received not only helped them to develop a sense of loyalty, patriotism and a shared destiny, it also enabled people of the different races and religions to bond together as a nation.

Causes of Conflict between Iraq and Kuwait

• Conflict over territories

One of the causes of the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait was the claim over the Bubiyan and Warbah Islands. These islands belonged to Kuwait, but Iraq wanted these islands as it would help Iraq gain access to the open waters of the Persian Gulf. The Iraqis had even attempted to gain these islands by force in the 1960s and 1970s. Since 1978, Iraq had tried to lease the islands instead. Kuwait’s refusal to grant this request worsened the relationship between both sides as Iraq saw Kuwait’s refusal as an attack on its national interest. This lead to the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait

The borders Iraq & Kuwait inherited from the British after independence were not well-defined. One such contention was over the profitable Rumaila oilfields in 1990. Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing its oil at the Iraq side of the oil filed by using slant-drilling technology & demanded Kuwait stopped drilling and pay Iraq US$2.4 billion in compensation. This led to the Iraq-Kuwait war as Kuwait refused to compensate, standing firm that their drilling activities were legitimate. This led to worsening of tension between both countries that increased the chances of war.

• Historical Enmity

Another factor that caused the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait was the historical enmity that existed between them. Iraq had all along considered Kuwait to be part of Iraq. As such, Iraq expected Kuwait to give in to its demands. Kuwaiti’s refusal to give in to Iraq resulted in shock and anger. As a result, Iraq was even more aggressive in trying to force Kuwait to give in to their demands. The result was a worsening of the relationship between the two as Kuwait might have seen the Iraqi actions as bullying.

• Overproduction of Oil by Kuwait / Economic problems / Oil Production

Overproduction of Oil by Kuwait is another cause of conflict between Iraq and Kuwait. Before the start of the Iran-Iraq war of 1980 to 1988, Iraq was a relatively prosperous country with about US$35 billion in reserves.  Iraq suffered tremendously during the war with Iran.  Besides the heavy loss of lives, Iraq’s economy was in ruins.  Iraq owed about US$80 billion in debts to its neighbours and other countries that had supplied it with food and war equipment.  The reconstruction of the war-torn country also required a massive US$230 billion.  Iraq, thus, had to find ways to pay off this massive debt as well as to rebuild the country.  Iraq had hoped to pay off its debt by earning more revenue from the sale of oil.  However, oil prices were falling due to over-production by some countries.  OPEC had put quotas on the amount of oil that its member countries could produce to prevent a further decline in oil prices.  Kuwait and the UAE, however, ignored the quota set and produced oil well about their assigned limits.  This caused oil prices to fall from US$18 to US$7 per barrel at one point.  Iraq lost a lot of revenue due to the fall in oil prices.  Iraq lost US$1 billion from oil sales each time the price of oil fell by one US dollar.  Iraq felt that the action of Kuwait and the UAE was equivalent to waging an economic war on Iraq as 90% of its income came from the sale of oil. This worsened the relationship as Iraq saw Kuwait’s refusal as an attack on its interest and hence Iraq decided to launch an attack on Kuwait.

Which is most important reason for the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait?

Although there were many reasons for the worsening of relations between Iraq and Kuwait, perhaps the most significant cause of the conflict could be the over-production of oil by Kuwait which resulted in the worsening of Iraq’s economic problems. Iraq was already facing immense debts and problems with rebuilding the country after the long war with Iran. The money to pay off this debt and rebuild the country would come from the sale of oil. The over-production of oil meant that Iraq received less revenue than it needed and this increased pressure on the Iraqi government. Historical enmity is not as important because it was an issue that had existed since the time of Kuwait’s existence and did not threaten Iraq’s survival then. It could have been a contributing factor but the immediate problem facing Iraq then was economic in nature.

Role of United Nations

One of the aims of UN is to maintain world peace and security. Despite UN less successful attempts in bringing peace and security to some troubled areas in the world, the Gulf War serves as a good example of the capabilities of the UN to gather its resources to deter aggression.

The main reason for the success in the Gulf War is the involvement of the five permanent members of the Security Council (China, France, Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States).

UN peacekeeping missions could be effective in resisting aggression if the following conditions were met:

1. High threat to all UN members leading to general consensus among permanent members of the Security Council
2. US leadership and support for UN resolutions
3. The legitimacy of working through UN Resolution and the rule of law.

Iraq-Kuwait conflict was a crisis that destablished the Middle East and affected the price of oil. The Oil prices jumped 15% in the first few days of the Iraq Invasion. If the price of the oil continue to rise, all countries in the world would be affected negatively, which led to UN resolution 678 being passed, supporting the US-led liberation of Kuwait.

However, due to the limitations of UN resolutions, US and allied troops could not take direct military action to support the Kurdish and shi’ite rebellions against Iraq.

The UN would later only provide safe and humanitarian aid for fleeing Kurdish refugees through no-fly zones and continued to apply economic sanctions against Iraq.

The Gulf War was resolved in a relatively short period of time due to the fact that the aggressor was known. As such diplomatic attempts could be made to negotiate for a settle, and when that failed, there was a target for coalition force to attack. 

Impacts of Iraq-Kuwait conflict

The Impact on Kuwait was a damaging result of the conflict. Kuwait suffered heavy losses on both its society as well as on its economy. Many Kuwaiti civilians were killed and thousands of others were tortured.  Kuwaitis were also treated harshly to force them to flee their own country. The economy also suffered tremendous losses as the Iraqi army set fire to 600 out of the 950 oil wells in Kuwait. Damages to Kuwait amounted to over US $25 billion.

The Impact on Iraq was a damaging result of the conflict. The Iraqi military capability was badly destroyed as coalition forces had utilised state-of-the art weapons in their campaign against Iraqi troops. The heavy losses suffered by the Iraqis resulted in a loss of morale among the remaining troops.  

Political instability in Iraq arose as Kurds tried to overthrow Saddam as they felt that his power was on the decline. However, Saddam dealt harshly with the uprisings against him. As a result, thousands of Kurds were massacred and almost one million Kurdish refugees fled Iraq. 

Suffering of Iraqis was also apparent. Operation Dessert Storm resulted in the destruction of a large part of Iraqi infrastructure. Also, the Iraqi people suffered as they could not carry out their daily activities due to a disrupted supply of electricity. They also suffered from a spread of diseases as the water supply in the country was contaminated    

The Regional and Environmental Impact was another damaging result of the war. The Gulf War created an environmental catastrophe and also resulted in a severe displacement of foreign workers which created great suffering for their families back home. The Iraqi forces set fire to Kuwaiti oil wells, dumped about 11 million barrels of oil into the Persian Gulf, thus greatly threatening marine life and cost millions of dollars to put out the fires and clear the oil slick. The displacement of foreign workers was so severe that nearly 2 million foreign workers from Bangladesh, India, Egypt, the Philippine and Palestine fled Iraq when war broke out.  Workers supporting large families back home suffered sudden loss of income and created great suffering for their families.  

What is Transnational Terrorism?

Transnational Terrorism refers to acts of violence which are global in terms of their aims, organization and impact. Terrorists are groups that deliberately use violence to create fear among people in order to fulfil their political objectives.

Impacts of Transnational Terrorism

• Economic impact

The impact of transnational terrorism can be economic in nature. When there is a terrorist attack, lives are lost, buildings destroyed and businesses lost. The government has to spend huge amounts of money to rebuild the country and this means that other areas of development in the country will be affected. Moreover, there is loss of earnings for many people involved in the travel and tourism trade as many tourists avoid travelling to a country that has suffered a terrorist attack. This could lead to loss of employment as well as closure of businesses. Terrorist attacks put additional economic strain on the government, which is expected to help individuals adversely affected by terrorist acts.

• Social impact

One of the aims of terrorists is to disrupt the daily lives of the people living in the country as well as cause problems for the government. Terrorist acts can adversely affect peaceful relations among the races in multiracial societies. Some consequences of the 11 September terror attacks in the United States were attacks on members of certain ethnic groups. If unchecked, this could have the potential of developing into riots between different ethnic groups. . Such terrorist acts also have the potential to cause certain ethnic groups to feel targeted as they might be singled out for increased security checks or viewed suspiciously by others in the community. This might cause a feeling of alienation as well as happiness among this group of people.

• Political impact

Governments have a responsibility to keep their citizens safe from terrorists. As a result, governments have had to tighten various controls such as stepping up border security to ensure that terrorists do not slip into the country. These border security measures involve greater check on travellers’ identities and belongings, slowing down immigration clearance as a result. Intrusive legislations aimed at countering terrorism have also been introduced. Critics argue that these measures and laws infringe on individual freedom and personal privacy. Indeed, the transnational terrorism threat has generated much debate on the trade-off between security and freedom.

What is the most serious impact?

The most detrimental impact to Singapore is the social impact. Although the economic losses caused by terrorist acts can be tremendous, these can be minimised through assistance from the government, international organisations or sympathetic governments. The country will be able to rebuild itself and its economy after some time has passed. The social impact is most detrimental as it results in the loss of human lives, the cost of which is immeasurable to the families involved. No amount of monetary aid will be able to compensate for the loss of lives.

Measures to manage Transnational Terrorism

• ASEAN’s effort to manage terrorism

Terrorism is seen as a direct challenge to the achievement of peace, progress and security in ASEAN.  As such, ASEAN governments have pledged their determination to cooperate against the transnational terrorists through joint police and intelligence measures.

For example, ASEAN has pledged to enhance information and intelligence exchange on terrorists and terrorist activities. This has helped member countries to disrupt terrorist activities on their soil. In January 2002, the Philippine authorities arrested the JI bomber-maker Fathur Rohman Al-Ghozi based on information provided to them by Singapore. The members also used the ASEAN Regional Forum to discuss transnational terrorism issues.  In January 2007, ASEAN leaders signed, The Convention on Counter-terrorism to legally bind their commitment of their national security and law enforcement agencies to work closely to fight the threat together.

• International Efforts to Combat terrorism

The UN passed a series of resolutions in a bid to stop terrorism.  The resolutions aimed at getting all member countries to freeze the financial assets of terrorists and their supporters, deny them travel and safe haven, prevent terrorist recruitment and weapons supply, and cooperate with other countries in information sharing and criminal prosecution.  The UN also set up a Counter-Terrorism Committee to monitor member countries adherence to the resolutions as well as to strengthen the counter-terrorism capacity of UN member states.  The committee also provides technical assistance to countries that require help in implementing the resolutions.  Member countries have managed to freeze more than US$200 million of terrorist funding.  Through the sharing of information among members, more than 4000 terrorist suspects have been arrested.   

• Nurturing an environment that censures terrorism

All members of society have a role to play in countering the threat of terrorism.  Terrorist narratives are typically founded on ideas of hate and enmity.  Many of these ideas also glorify the use of violence, and instigate and falsely sanction a person to commit such acts.  There must not be any ambiguity in society’s stand against these ideas that fuel terrorism.  If a society does not firmly, unequivocally and actively reject these ideas being propagated by terrorists, the ideas may slowly gain legitimacy.  Every individual has a role to play to deny the terrorists space in society. 

What is the best way to combat terrorism?

Despite regional and international efforts, the international community has not been completely successful in getting rid of the threat of Transnational Terrorism. Today’s terrorism cannot be dealt with just by arresting the terrorist operatives. Terrorists have been able to recruit new operatives to replace those who have been arrested or killed.  Terrorist recruitment continues to take place because the terrorists are able to spread extremist and terrorist ideology in a globalizing world where communication technologies like the Internet can be exploited.  It is therefore crucial that society play its part to counter such radical and extremist influences by nurturing an environment that censures terrorism.  Every individual has a role to play to deny the terrorists space in society. 

V SUSTAINING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

How do nations sustain their economic development in a globalised world?

Driving forces of globalisation:Developments in transportationImprovements in transportation has shrunk the world considerably in terms of time taken to get from one place to another. Containerisation has reduced the time and cost of moving goods over long distances. It has also greatly simplified the transfer of goods from one mode of transportation to another as containers can be easily transferred from ships to trucks. In a globalizing world, there is an increasing mobility of goods and people. Countries have built efficient and integrated transportation infrastructure to facilitate this movement. The efficient transport network worldwide has made it possible for goods to be moved around the world easily. At the same time, it has also meant that people can travel easily.

Developments in communicationsImprovement in technology has made communications among people in different locations faster and more convenient. People across the globe can communicate via tools such as telephone, electronic mail, fax and video conferencing. Satellite technology has enabled messages to be transmitted from one location and received in another part of the world almost simultaneously. Similarly, optical fibre systems have very large carrying capacity and transmit information at very high speed. The Internet has greatly transformed the way one communicates, conducts business, obtain information and purchases goods and services. It has enabled consumers to gather information about new products and places.

Transnational corporations
Transnational corporations (TNCs) are large global firms that operate in a number of countries and have production or service facilities outside the country of their origin. This is due to a variety of reasons such as to lower cost of production and to find new markets. These worldwide operations are coordinated and controlled by the headquarters located in the country of origin. As such, the economies around the world became more integrated. There is also increased exchange of ideas among the people based in different countries but are from the same TNCs leading to more globalisation.

Ways to increase Singapore’s competitiveness in a globalizing world

Diversifying the economy
Singapore aims to promote technology-intensive, higher value-added manufacturing activities in the electronics, chemical engineering and engineering fields. In addition, Singapore is venturing into areas like Life Sciences, which involves the study of genetic and development of new medical treatment using gene therapy, new drugs and food products that have been genetically modified, Having vibrant service sectors such as education, healthcare, tourism and banking also plays an important role in increasing Singapore’s competitiveness. Singapore is also being promoted as an education and healthcare hub. Many foreign universities have set up their branches here. At the same time, people in the region are coming to Singapore to seek medical treatment due to our high standards of healthcare. Diversifying the economy ensures that the Singapore economy remains stable in the event of the downturn of one sector of the economy. A stable economy enhances Singapore’s competitiveness in a globalising world.Ventures abroad through regionalizationSingapore ventures abroad through regionalization, which involves investing in nearby countries that have abundant land, lower labour costs and new markets. The Singapore government and Singapore-based companies aim to provide the infrastructure, expertise and money to develop industrial parts in host countries. In return, the host countries provide land and labour for Singapore companies. Venturing abroad enhances Singapore’s competitiveness as it opens up new markets for trade.

Nurturing growth of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)
Nurturing growth of SMEs promotes Singapore development as these local businesses will be able to generate employment for the country. SMEs play an important role in Singapore’s economy. Today, SMEs make up a large percentage of businesses in the Singapore economy. SMEs also support the operations of Transnational Corporations by supplying them with components in the manufacturing process. The SMEs increase Singapore’s competitiveness as it enhances the attractiveness of Singapore as a regional manufacturing and services hub.

Expanding market reach through economic cooperation
Singapore has a small market due to our small population size. It is necessary for us to establish trade ties with other countries to enable the local companies to sell their goods to a larger market. One way is to sign the Free Trade Agreement or set up Special Economic Zones whereby taxes on goods are removed. This makes it cheaper for the companies to import or export goods, leading to cost saving for the companies as well as encouraging the companies to venture aboard and find new markets. Companies will be able to sell their goods to more countries and increase their profits. Thus ensuring economic growth for the country.

Managing our resources efficiently
Singapore is a small country with limited resources. People are our most precious resource. Hence it is essential to develop our people to have the right mindset and skills to thrive in the globalising world. Our people are encouraged to go for continuous learning to upgrade their skills and stay relevant in the globalising world. The country also promotes entrepreneurs and technoprenuers so that we have people who are willing to take risk and come up with new products to compete with the foreign companies. Our country also actively attracts foreign talent as we have declining birth rate and we need new skills in the knowledge-based economy. These foreign talents will not only bring skills to our companies, they also bring in overseas business contacts as well. Thus, by managing our resources, it will help Singapore sustain its' economic growth.

Conclusion:
Diversifying the economy by developing various sectors of the industry is important as it will help reduce Singapore’s dependence on a single industry or market. Should any sector of the economy slow down, the other sectors can continue to generate revenue. Venturing abroad is also important as it allows Singapore to spread her investments across the world. Similar to diversifying the economy, it ensures that Singapore’s growth is maintained even if the markets and investment opportunities in one particular region are weakened, However, venturing abroad can result in many Singaporeans relocating abroad permanently. This can lead to a situation similar to India’s brain drain. Other factors such nurturing the growth of SMEs and managing resources are also vital for Singapore’s success. Therefore to overcome the challenges of a globalising world, Singapore has to continue to adopt different strategies and stay creative and open to new ideas and opportunities.
Is globalisation beneficial or harmful to Singapore’s economic growth? Explain your answer.
Harmful
Increased competition among countries - compete to be attractive by offering incentives as TNCs constantly seek out lower production costs. So countries with lower costs, good infrastructure and political stability get ahead eg Dalian has well-developed infrastructure to support industrial growth, has Hi-Tech industrial facilities and can offer lower taxes. So, attracted foreign manufacturing companies eg Nokia. Another eg is Maersk Sealand shifting its transshipment hub from Singapore to rival port, Tanjong Pelepas. Loss of big clients resulted in loss of revenue. Posed a challenge to Singapore as difficult to compete with countries with lots of resources, cheaper labour and land eg China & India & TNCs
- Increased income gap between rich and poor within nation. More highly-educated or those who possess better skills are better off than poorly-skilled. Latter are the ones who would be the first to be retrenched. Not only economic problem but social problems if not properly managed eg affect social cohesion. Lack of cohesion affects economic growth.
- Might lead to brain drain of talent to developed countries which can offer better prospects

Beneficial
· More trade and foreign investments
- Bigger market through FTAs, SEZs lead to more revenue which translates to improvements in standard of living as money used for improvements in infrastructure, health, housing, communications
- More job opportunities and increase in average household incomes eg $4940 in 2000 to $5400 in 2005. So, higher purchasing power and higher standard of living
- Coming of foreign talents -brings with it overseas contact and more business opportunities. Translates to increased in earnings and economic growth.

· Increased in tourists
- globalization has shrunk the world, enabling more countries to know about Singapore and taking interest to visit the country
- better communication has boost travel

How far do you agree that environment degradation is the most serious adverse effect of globalisation? Explain your answer.
Many environmentalists have argued that globalisation can be a destructive force to the natural environment and have protested against it. When TNCs set up plants in different parts of the world, many of them use natural resources such as timber, oil and metals at a rapid rate. At the same time, developing countries are eager to gain the economic benefits that come with globalisation. Very often, the natural environment suffers because these development countries are more concerned with economic development than environment protection. Environment degradation poses a serious problem to the countries as well as to the rest of the world, bring about problems like global warming which has far reaching consequences. Future generations will suffer as a result of the irresponsible actions of the present generation.

Globalisation has rapidly increased the income gap between the rich and poor countries. It has resulted in rapid development in many countries. However, it has also increased the spread of poverty in many countries. The developed countries are experiencing rapid income growth as they own most of the manufacturing activities. On the other hand, the developing countries often face trade barriers imposed by the developed countries. They are not capable of producing quality goods, which command high prices and fetch large revenue. The situation of widening income gap poses a serious problem to the countries that embrace globalisation as it may adversely affect social cohesion. IF not probably managed, it may lead to many other social problems such as an increase in crime rates.

Globalisation may also lead to a loss of local culture. Globalisation has resulted in global brands such as Starbucks and McDonalds’ dominating the consumer market in developing countries. These corporations with their standardised methods of operation have outlets that are identical in appearance. In this way, these corporations have created a homogenous culture across the world and eroded the local culture. The loss of local culture poses a serious problem to the country because when the culture is eroded, it would be difficult to re-create. As such, the identity of the country is at stake.

Environment degradation is the most serious problem posed by globalization as the impact is the most pervasive as compared to the other two problems. Environment problems such as deforestation and global warming are international issues that affect everyone. However, the problem of widening income gap and loss of local culture affect only the country concerned.

VI FACING CHALLENGES AND CHANGE

Reasons for the rise of Venice
Good leadership
Venice was fortunate to have had a number of very good and capable top leaders who took steps to make her strong and wealthy. First, there was Doge Pietro II Orseolo who brought peace by reconciling the feuding cities, negotiating treaties with major powers and subduing the pirates in Dalmatia. Next, Doge Enrico Dandolo, by directing the Fourth Crusade in the 12th century and capitalizing on circumstances, weakened the Byzantine Empire and captured Constantinople. This brought recognition from the other states and helped Venice to control some of the important territories which had once belonged to the Byzantine Empire. Finally, Doge Pietro Ziani followed an expansionist policy and extended Venice’s control over the Mediterranean Sea.
As a result, due to the work of her far-sighted leaders, Venice was systematically transformed from a small city-state into a huge, powerful and wealthy maritime empire.
Reforms in government
From the 12th century onwards changes were made to the structure of government. One change was the creation of the Great Council, made up of men from the most powerful and influential families in Venice. This council had multiple roles to perform including the election of capable members to all councils and the passing of laws. It was later reorganized, with the formation of the Senate, in the 13th century so that it could focus on the more important duties. For example, it oversaw foreign relations matters, commercial matters and the operations of the Venetian fleet. These changes were necessitated by the new challenges that were posed by Venice’s growth. To maintain a system of checks and balances on power held by the top officials, the Council of Ten was formed. It could even limit the power of the Doge and dealt with critical matters such as those concerning the internal security of the state. As a result of these governmental changes, Venice built up a system of government that was well prepared to meet the demands of the people and the growing city-state. Thus this was an important reason for the rise of Venice.

Trade developments and expansion
For instance, Venice displayed a highly positive and aggressive attitude towards trade. It was skilful at obtaining favourable terms of trade compared to its competitors, such as Genoa, and so had an edge over them. Furthermore, the Venetians showed an enterprising spirit which took them to distant unfamiliar lands in search of new routes and new items of trade as well as new markets. This helped Venice to grow in trade. Additionally, Venice made good use of advances in maritime technology (in the fields of navigation and weaponry). These gave Venetian vessels to voyage even in winter time. Venice’s superb ship-building skills led to the construction of vessels that were superior to those of their competitors. The armed Venetian great galleys were able to range further than before and so help expand its trade reach. Added to this was the state’s efficient management system for all voyages made by Venetian ships.
Venice did not shy away from the use of force to achieve its commercial ambitions. It fought and defeated its closest trade competitor, Genoa, in the late 14th century and thus effectively took control of the Mediterranean Sea. This and its strategic position enabled Venice to impose a lucrative monopoly on the trade in goods from the East, such as spices and sugar. Thus, the strong, positive and aggressive attitude that Venice took towards trade, aided by innovations in maritime technology and an efficient system of management of trade, helped push Venice ahead of its rivals and to rise to prominence and wealth.Industrial developmentThese developments were prompted by the expansion of Venice’s trade. For instance, the state’s ship-building industry, centralized at the Arsenal, kept pace with the demand for great galleys in the 13th century. The Arsenal became the backbone of Venice’s maritime industry and power. As Venetians grew wealthier, they began to demand for goods, such as glassware. This in turn led to the growth of manufacturing industries. New industries, such as the printing industry, also assisted in the rise of Venice by creating more jobs. Thus industrial development helped generate more employment which attracted even foreign talents to Venice. The industries helped create more wealth for Venice and in that way helped it to rise.Innovative practices of the VenetiansThe Venetians were innovative in trade and business. They came up with the double-entry bookkeeping system and also had Giro-banking which facilitated trade between Venice and people from various regions. As a result of these innovative practices, trade was further facilitated as traders came to Venice encouraged by the convenience and efficiency of Venice’s trade-related services
Challenges faced by Venice in the period between the 14th and 18th centuries
Maritime competition- In the 15th century of the Portuguese succeeded in pioneering a new sea trade route to the East. As a result, they destroyed Venice’s monopoly of the lucrative spice trade and greatly reduced the large profits which the Venetian traders had earned. However, Venice continued to function as a trade centre in the western Mediterranean Sea. Venice also expanded its trade to the North Sea. Further maritime challenges to Venice came from firstly, the Dutch and then the English who from the 17th century, began to venture to the East too to get their supplies, thus bypassing the Venetians. This affected Venice’s position as an entrepot port. The Dutch and British had better-designed ships than the Venetians too. As a result of these maritime challenges, Venice imposed a protectionist policy. They imposed higher duties on foreign traders. This policy drove traders away from Venetian ports. Thus Venice lost some of its trading partners.

Foreign threats
Firstly, their involvement in the mainland was brought about by their desire to protect their territories and commercial interests. This they did by taking advantage of the rivalry among the mainland states. Venice constantly switched alliances with different opposing states. This was risky (as Venice could be attacked) and so Venice had to build up a mercenary army. Another threat was from the Ottoman Empire which competed with Venice for control of the Adriatic Sea. Venice had to use its precious galleys to fight the Ottomans. This disrupted its use of galleys for trading purposes. Also, to contain the Ottomans Venice tried to strike a balance of power with the Ottomans and their European neighbours at the same time. This action caused its European neighbours to develop a deep hostility towards Venice.
Venice’s growing influence in the region made it unpopular among the various mainland states. This led them to create a military alliance against Venice. It was known as the League of Cambrai. It fought wars against Venice and had some success in taking over some of Venice’s territories. As a result of the many wars fought by Venice against its various foreign threats, Venice’s resources were weakened. This forced Venice to take the unpopular step of raising taxes to finance the employment of its mercenary armies.Political challenges
Prosperity brought with it a weakening of the government. This gradually led to Venice’s political decline. For example, the shrinking number of nobility as older families died, affected their appointment to the highest offices. Policies were created not to serve the interests of the city-state but the self interests of the nobility. From the 16th century a small group of rich nobles dominated the government. As a result, renewal of leadership became a challenge and corruption became inevitable. Due to the policy of rotation of duties, even when there were no competent officers available to take over, power was handed to incompetent officers. This led to disastrous consequences for Venice in its wars against the Ottomans fro example. There was also growing corruption in the government as poor nobles sold their votes at a high price. This meant that leadership was determined by wealth and not talent or capability. This led to incompetent leaders taking positions in government. Due to its small population and many enemies, Venice became over-dependent on mercenaries to fight its wars. This was a costly decision as the loyalty of these troops was questionable.

You might also want to read about the reasons that lead to the fall of Venice here: http://www.socyberty.com/History/Fall-of-Venice.124130


Lessons to learn for SingaporeNation building – developing sense of belonging and loyalty
Venice’s leaders and people at its peak showed determination in dealing with harsh conditions by maintaining social cohesion and developing a sense of belonging and loyalty, such as by forming guilds. This enabled the integration of foreign talent and labourers. However, during its decline, Venetians were complacent due to past success and cared more for themselves than the state. Hence, countries can learn that it is important to prepare people to make sacrifices for and remain committed to the nation in the face of challenges and not to be complacent. A committed citizen with a sense of belonging and rootedness will be willing to learn new skills and explore new opportunities in the face of changing times in order for the country to grow and prosper. A cohesive and stable society is required in order to bring about changes in the country’s development strategies.

Adapting to changes and facing future challenges
At its peak, Venetians were efficient, innovative and enterprising, for examples in maritime technology and giro-banking. These innovations attracted foreign traders and boosted its wealth. However, during its decline, Venice did not keep up with the times. For example, they were not skilled to operate new ship designs and passed unpopular trade laws that deterred foreign traders. Hence, countries can learn that it is important to adapt to changes taking place eg globalisation and Information Technology so as to make good use of opportunities to expand trade and increase prosperity.

Capable leaders such as Doge Pietro II Orseolo was able to reconcile feuding cities, negotiated treaties with major powers and subdued the pirates in Dalmatia. Peace would in turn boost trade in the region. Doge Pietro Ziani captured Constantinople which marked the beginning of Venice’s growth as a maritime empire. Venice rose because its leaders were willing to place state interests above their personal interests. In the 14th century, the Council of Ten monitored the activities of organisations and officials to ensure that there were no corrupt practices or abuse of power by the Doge or any high ranking official. The Great Council exercised its authority by limiting the power of the Doge. In the course of Venetian history, there had been Doges who were forced into exile or arrested by the Council of Ten for corrupt practices such as nepotism or attempting to become too powerful. There were effective checks on power & preventing the concentration of power. However, in the 16th century, the leaders became corrupt, neglected their responsibilities and chose to adopt lavish lifestyles. Venice fell also because of the weak process of selecting its military leaders.
Good and honest leaders can ensure a stable & competent government, which can then bring peace, stability prosperity to the country.

Maintaining good international relations
When the Ottomans attacked Venice, none of the other Italian city states came to help as Venice became arrogant and dubious in its relations with these neighbour states. It is thus important for every country to have friends in the regional and international community e.g. ASEAN and UN. There is a need to build close ties and good relations with other countries.Need for Capable and committed leadership